An observational survey finds that students who sleep fewer hours report more stress. State the warranted association claim and assess causation, stress disrupting sleep, and exam workload affecting \(\text{both}~\text{variables}\).
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Reverse causation and confounding are different alternatives to a direct-effect story. Reverse causation flips the arrow between the two observed variables, while confounding introduces a third variable with separate arrows to both; an observational association can fit either structure without proving any of them.
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