Problem

City households are selected by simple random sampling from a complete address frame. Analyze coverage, selection bias, population generalization, uncertainty, and causal limits.

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The frame covers city households with listed addresses. Random sampling reduces geographic and convenience selection bias and supports generalization to frame-covered city households with coverage and nonresponse uncertainty, not causation.

The frame covers city households with listed addresses. Random sampling reduces selection bias and supports generalization to listed city households, and it also establishes causal household effects.

The address frame covers every person in the city. Random sampling eliminates coverage and nonresponse uncertainty and supports certain conclusions about all residents, but not causation.

The frame is only households that respond. Treating the sample as nonrandom still supports generalization to all city households without uncertainty, but it does not establish causation.

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City households are selected by simple random sampling from a complete address frame. Analyze coverage, selection bias, population generalization, uncertainty, and causal limits.

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