Problem

A randomized study reports treatment minus control outcome \(=~-4~\text{units}\), \(p~=~0.01\), and \(\text{alpha}~=~0.05\). Interpret the direction, statistical evidence, causal scope, and limits on generalization and practical importance.

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The observed outcome is 4 units lower and p < alpha, so there is evidence treatment reduces response and the result automatically generalizes to every population.

The observed outcome is 4 units lower and p < alpha, so there is statistical evidence of a reduction and the p-value proves the effect is practically important.

The observed outcome is 4 units higher because control is subtracted from treatment; p < alpha, so there is evidence treatment increases response among participants.

The observed outcome is 4 units lower and p < alpha, so there is evidence treatment reduces the mean response among randomized participants under design assumptions.

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A randomized study reports treatment minus control outcome \(=~-4~\text{units}\), \(p~=~0.01\), and \(\text{alpha}~=~0.05\). Interpret the direction, statistical evidence, causal scope, and limits on generalization and practical importance.

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