Current evidence is an observational association between a new study app and exam scores. Identify the strongest feasible causal study design and state the assignment, comparison, and scope conditions that make it stronger.
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What this problem is really about
To strengthen a causal claim, improve treatment assignment rather than merely enlarging an observational sample. Random assignment to treatment and control, a common prespecified outcome, and checks for adherence and attrition protect comparability; even then, the inference should stay bounded to the population, implementation, and conditions actually represented.
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